Masculinity is a socially constructed set of behaviours, traits, roles, and practices associated with men and boys, which are learned and practiced through life. Most men do not consciously choose to learn these norms; they are inherited from families, peers, communities, media and workplaces.

Because masculinity is learned rather than inherent, it exists in multiple forms. These forms are shaped by social position, including class, ethnicity, age, sexuality, body and ability. Importantly, different expressions of masculinity are associated with different health risks, behaviours and outcomes, and can vary between cultures and evolve over time.

Sociologist Raewyn Connell’s framework helps to explain the social construct of ‘ideal’ masculinity in relation to femininity and other forms of masculinity. It explains patterns through which different individuals relate differently to masculinity, and how this shapes exposure to risk, vulnerability and health outcomes.

Raewyn's Connell masculinities framework

Summary of Raewyn's Connell masculinities framework and how they may shape harmful health and relationship outcomes.

Hegemonic masculinity

Definition

The culturally dominant ideal of manhood, which is typically characterised by strength, emotional control, self-reliance, heterosexuality and authority. This form establishes social expectations against which other men are measured and reinforces men's power over women and other men.

Potential health impacts for men

• reluctance to seek help or disclose distress
• late presentation to health services
• risk-taking behaviours, including substance use and dangerous driving
• emotional suppression, which increases risk of depression, suicide and relationship breakdown

Potential impacts for women and children

• reinforces unequal power dynamics in relationships, increasing women’s exposure to emotional labour, caregiving burdens, and, in some cases, coercive control or violence
• limits children’s exposure to emotional modelling, communication and helpseeking behaviours. Provides harmful role modelling for children regarding how men should act and relationship’s function
• contributes to cultures in which women’s safety concerns or emotional needs may be minimised or dismissed

Complicit masculinity

Definition

Describes men who do not fully meet hegemonic ideals but still benefit from the wider system of male privilege. These men may not actively promote dominant norms, but neither do they challenge them.

Potential health impacts for men

• adopting silence or emotional distance as a default coping strategy
• accepting harmful norms around drinking, work or stress as “just how things are”
• benefiting from male privilege in some settings while remaining vulnerable to poor health outcomes

Potential impacts for women and children

• increased strain within families as women act as mediators or carers
• reinforces silence around men's distress, delaying support and increasing the likelihood of crises that affect whole households

Subordinated masculinities

Definition

Masculinities that are devalued or stigmatised in relation to the dominant ideal, including gay men, emotionally expressive men, or those who challenge gender norms.

Potential health impacts for men

• higher exposure to stigma, discrimination and harassment
• increased rates of anxiety, depression and self-harm
• barriers to accessing safe and affirming services
• heightened social isolation

Potential impacts for women and children

• stress and marginalisation can affect relationships

Marginalised masculinities

Definition

Refers to men whose intersecting social positions, shaped by class, ethnicity, disability, care experience or poverty, limits access to power, status and resources. These men may be expected to meet dominant masculine ideals but lack the material conditions to do so.

Potential health impacts for men

• chronic stress linked to economic insecurity
• higher exposure to trauma, bereavement and adverse childhood experiences
• increased risk of substance dependence, poor mental health and early mortality Limited access to timely, appropriate services

Potential impacts for women and children

• economic insecurity and exclusion can increase financial strain on households
• accumulated trauma and stress may contribute to relationship conflict, instability, or intergenerational transmission of adversity to children

This framework is included to illustrate how masculinity interacts with inequality to shape health outcomes. It helps explain why:

• some men avoid help until crisis
• some men experience disproportionate harm from structural disadvantage
• one-size-fits-all approaches to men's health fail to reach those most at risk

Positive masculinities

While Connell’s framework helps explain how certain dominant forms of masculinity can generate risk and inequality, masculinity itself is not inherently harmful. Many traditionally masculine traits: loyalty, courage, responsibility, and pride in providing for others, can be protective and health-promoting when expressed in flexible and relational ways.

The aim of this report is to examine how masculinities can become harmful when combined with deprivation, trauma and structural change, and to promote healthier expressions of masculinity that support men, women and children alike.

Local expressions of masculinity

The Big Question explored local male experiences through in-depth, qualitative methods (Ashworth, E. et al, 2026). The industrial heritage and relatively isolated geography of West Cumbria have shaped a form of masculinity centred on hard work, close loyal workforces, and resilience. These strengths are sources of pride. However, when work becomes unstable, the same norms can produce silence, shame, or withdrawal. Men may avoid asking for help because it feels incompatible with family and cultural norms.

These socially learned norms can become health-harming when combined with poverty, trauma, grief, discrimination or limited opportunities. They help explain why men sometimes present late to services, respond to distress through anger, or turn to substances as coping mechanisms.

The poorer health outcomes observed among men in Cumberland do not affect all men equally. Their experience depends on intersecting factors such as socioeconomic situation, place, ethnicity, disability and sexuality, which can generate cumulative disadvantage.

Boys and men who have grown up in care, live with disability, are neurodivergent, identify as LGBTQ+, or come from ethnic minority backgrounds often encounter additional barriers in education, employment, relationships and access to support. These experiences influence not only opportunities, but also whether men feel safe in expressing their identity, asking for help, or being vulnerable.

Gender norms do not affect all men in the same way. Some men socially benefit from dominant expectations of masculinity, while others find themselves constrained or harmed by them. Men who face social or economic disadvantage often experience the sharpest consequences, as expectations of self-reliance and toughness meet with limited resources, discrimination or trauma. These patterns reflect structural conditions rather than personal failure.

Place and employment

Despite employment data that appears consistent with national averages, West Cumbrian communities face long term challenges due to deindustrialisation of coal and steel production. Recent generations have experienced the effects of unemployment, abrupt changes in work identity. The local economy remains dependent on major employers like Sellafield, which offers well-paid jobs but create economic disparity. Masculine norms shaped around traditionally male roles and breadwinning can be challenging when employment is unstable or income is disparate. This is further explored in Chapter 4: Work, place and identity in adult men’s lives.

Adversity and grief

Individuals in communities with unstable work, low income, or limited opportunities often carry high cumulative grief loads, multiple bereavements, sudden losses, or traumatic events. Without the tools to express vulnerability or seek support, grief can become internalised and have long lasting psychological and/or physical impacts. The Big Question report highlighted grief as a major factor in suicide in Cumberland (Ashworth, E. et al, 2026).

Approach and frameworks

This report draws on several established public health perspectives to guide the analysis.

Life course approach

Health inequalities accumulate across time. Early childhood experiences, school environments, work pathways, relationships and community settings all shape men’s wellbeing in adulthood.

Determinants of health framework

The report considers how wider systems, such as housing, employment, social security, education, justice, and service design influence health. These structural determinants explain why individuals facing similar stresses have different outcomes.

Diderichsen’s inequalities framework

We employ Diderichsen’s framework on how inequalities emerge through differential exposure, vulnerability, consequences, and responses.

Evidence and engagement

This report was informed by engagement with a wide range of local practitioners, service leads and community organisations working with men, boys and families across Cumberland. Contributors included representatives from Cumberland Council, Cumbria Constabulary, community and voluntary organisations and sports and wellbeing organisations.

A survey was undertaken to capture professional insight into the needs of boys and young men in Cumberland. The survey was completed by 53 practitioners working across education, youth justice, family support, wellbeing and voluntary sector services. The survey captured practitioner perspectives on needs, barriers to engagement and effective approaches. The survey does not represent the views of boys and young men themselves. Findings are used throughout this report to contextualise and corroborate population-level data.