End of reception

Gendered differences in outcomes appear early, seen in data at the end of reception, where a good level of development1 is achieved by fewer boys (57.3%) than girls (75.3%) in Cumberland, broadly mirroring national inequities (Figure 17). The group of children with the lowest rates are boys who receive free school meals (42.6%, noting wide confidence intervals). This is in line with the national rate of 43.2%.

Of black and minority ethnic children in Cumberland, 56.2%, achieve a good level of development at reception; lower than all other children in Cumberland (65.9%), and with other black and ethnic minority children across the northwest (61.6%) and nationally (66.1%). This likely represents cumulatively poorer outcomes in boys of black and minority ethnicities, though this data breakdown is not available.

Key stage two

At the end of the academic year 2024 to 2025, 791 out of 1506 (52.5%) of boys in Cumberland finished key stage two meeting the expected standard in reading, writing and maths combined, compared with 889 out of 1513 (58.8%) of girls. These gender gaps are compounded by disadvantage; children receiving free school meals are far less likely to achieve the expected standard, with boys lower than girls (116 out of 354 (32.8%) vs 153 out of 388 (39.4%) respectively).

This patterning repeats in girls and boys with special educational needs (SEN). Out of 405 boys with SEN, 68 met the expected standard (16.8%), and 45 out of 246 (18.3%) of girls met the expected standard. It is important to note here the higher number of boys with SEN compared to girls, however systematic differences in diagnosis patterns in boys and girls likely misrepresents the true figures.

Key stage four attainment

Educational inequalities evident by the end of primary school persist into adolescence. At the end of Key Stage 4 in 2024 to 2025, boys in Cumberland achieved lower average Attainment 8 scores than girls (40.2 compared with 44.5), and were less likely to achieve grades 5 or above in both English and Maths (34.9% of boys compared with 38.1% of girls). Pupils eligible for free school meals have substantially lower attainment, though the gap between genders is narrower, at fewer than one in six boys (16.4%) achieving attainment score 8, slightly less than girls at 17.8%.

This indicates that early educational disadvantage is not corrected by secondary schooling but becomes embedded by the point at which qualifications most strongly shape post-16 pathways, employment prospects and future health outcomes.

Post compulsory education

RQF Level 42 represents a key progression point beyond compulsory education. Qualifications at this level demonstrate advanced subject knowledge and analytical skills and often provide access to professional and technical roles.

In Cumberland, progression to RQF Level 4 and above shows a clear gender divide. In 2024, 31% of men had achieved qualifications at this level or higher, compared with 42% of women. This gap reflects the cumulative effects of earlier educational divergence observed at primary and secondary school stages. Lower progression to higher-level qualifications limits access to secure, well-paid and less physically demanding employment, increasing long-term vulnerability to economic insecurity and poorer health outcomes. These patterns underline how early educational inequalities translate into constrained opportunities in early adulthood, reinforcing the importance of earlier intervention and more inclusive progression pathways for boys and young men.

Not in education, employment or training

Local data indicate that a small but significant minority of young people in Cumberland are not in education, employment or training (NEET) at ages 16–17, with boys more likely than girls to be NEET (Table 4). Although overall NEET proportions in Cumberland are relatively low, the range of alternative post-16 opportunities for those young people are more limited than in many other local authorities. This means that even small increases in disengagement have the potential for disproportionate impact due to fewer accessible pathways back into learning or work, increasing the risk of longer-term economic and social exclusion.

Table 4: Proportion of young adults who are not in educational, employment or training in Cumberland, 2024.

School suspensions and permanent exclusions

The following sub-section uses Department for Education data from autumn school term 2023 to 2024 to autumn school term 2024 to 2025 inclusive, for state funded secondary schools. Secondary schools are focused on, as there are much few suspensions and exclusions in primary schools.

Across the four terms combined, Cumberland has lower rates of suspension than England but higher rates of permanent exclusion. The largest difference is a 1.61 times increased rate of exclusions for children eligible for free school meals in Cumberland compared with England (Table 5).

Table 5: Rates and rate ratios for permanent exclusions and suspensions state funded secondary schools, Cumberland vs England, Autumn 2023 to 2024 to Autum 2024 to 2025, Department for Education.

Suspension rates in Cumberland are consistently below national averages. However, permanent exclusion rates are 35% higher overall and 61% higher among pupils eligible for free school meals (FSM). Pupils eligible for FSM in Cumberland experience permanent exclusion at over three times the overall rate (Table 6). The social gradient in exclusion is stronger locally than nationally (2.5 times the rate nationally).

Table 6: Rates and rate ratios for permanent exclusions and suspensions in children eligible for free school meals in state funded secondary schools, Cumberland vs England, Autumn 2023 to 2024 to Autumn 2024 to 2025, Department for Education

Across state-funded secondary schools, suspensions and permanent exclusions are strongly concentrated in mid-secondary years (Years 8–10), peaking in Year 9 for suspensions and Year 9–10 for permanent exclusions. This pattern is consistent nationally and locally, but Cumberland shows higher permanent exclusion rates in these key years. Given the elevated rates among FSM pupils and boys, the intersection of FSM status and mid-secondary years likely represents the highest-risk group.

Reasons for suspensions

Nationally, persistent disruptive behaviour accounts for just over half of all suspensions (approximately 55%). The next most common reasons are verbal abuse or threatening behaviour towards an adult (around 16–17%) and physical assault against a pupil (around 11–12%). Drug and alcohol-related incidents account for a smaller proportion nationally (approximately 2–3%).

Cumberland shows a similar overall picture to national suspensions, with persistent disruptive behaviour accounting for around half of suspensions. However, verbal abuse towards adults represents a consistently higher share locally in several terms (ranging from approximately 18% to over 20%). Drug and alcohol-related suspensions also account for a larger share locally in some terms (around 4–7%). Physical assault against pupils remains one of the top three causes, although slightly lower proportionally than national averages in some terms.

Reasons for exclusions

Permanent exclusions follow a similar pattern but are more concentrated in high-severity behavioural categories.

Nationally, persistent disruptive behaviour accounts for around 40–42% of permanent exclusions. The next most common reasons are physical assault against a pupil (around 16–17%) and verbal abuse or threatening behaviour against an adult (around 11–12%). Drug and alcohol-related incidents account for approximately 6–7% of permanent exclusions nationally.

In Cumberland, persistent disruptive behaviour accounts for a larger share of permanent exclusions in several terms (ranging from the mid-40% range to over 50%).

Physical assault against a pupil and verbal abuse towards adults also consistently appear among the leading causes (11 to 21% and 11 to 16% respectively). While numbers are small and therefore proportions fluctuate more locally, the dominant pathway to permanent exclusion remains persistent behavioural escalation.

Exclusions and suspensions summary

Exclusion is concentrated in mid-secondary years, a period associated with early adolescence, social identity development and increasing academic pressure. This suggests that Years 8–10 and the time immediately preceding represent a critical intervention window.

Second, inequality is pronounced. FSM pupils experience more than three times higher permanent exclusion rates, and the gradient is stronger locally than nationally. Exclusion therefore reflects and potentially reinforces wider socioeconomic disadvantage.

Third, the dominant drivers are persistent disruptive behaviour. Cumberland’s lower suspension rates combined with higher permanent exclusion rates suggest that when behavioural difficulties persist, escalation to permanent removal may be more likely locally.

Exclusion should be understood as an indicator of cumulative vulnerability intersecting with deprivation, adolescent development and emerging mental and emotional wellbeing health needs. Preventative, early intervention approaches in early and mid-secondary years, particularly for disadvantaged pupils, are therefore central to reducing long-term harm.

Adversity in childhood is a key driver of health inequality, with strong evidence linking early life stress, trauma and disrupted attachment to poorer mental health, educational outcomes and increased risk of substance use and suicide in adulthood. Ten of these have been defined, referred to as adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), though these do not capture all adversities, such as living in a community experiencing poverty, poor employment, bereavement and isolation (Figure 19). The ACE pyramid (Figure 20) is a conceptual framework, demonstrating how adverse childhood experiences influence health and wellbeing.

Evidence suggests that girls are more likely than boys to report ACEs overall, and that ACEs experienced differ by sex, with boys more likely to experience physical abuse and girls more likely to experience sexual abuse(Jones et al., 2022). Boys and girls respond to adversity in different ways: boys are more likely to exhibit externalising responses, such as anger, behavioural disruption or withdrawal, while girls are more likely to exhibit internalising responses, such as anxiety or low mood. Gendered responses to behaviours are learned through and beyond childhood, including in schools. Both biological and social factors influence the emergence of gendered behaviours, with theoretical models of development summarised from Chaplin in Table 7.

Table 7: Theoretical models of emergence of gendered behaviour, extracted from Chaplin (Chaplin, 2015).

In practice, externalising responses are more likely to be interpreted as behavioural or disciplinary problems, particularly within school settings. This increases the likelihood that boys experiencing adversity are sanctioned or excluded. Over time, this contributes to disengagement from education, increased contact with the care and youth justice systems, and reduced access to protective factors.

The 2018 Annual Public Health Report for Cumbria highlighted the importance of recognising and responding to adverse childhood experiences through whole-system, trauma-informed approaches. Understanding how adversity is experienced, expressed and responded to differently in boys is critical to preventing the escalation of risk across the life course.

Boys growing up in deprived and coastal communities are more likely to experience multiple, overlapping stressors, including economic insecurity, bereavement, parental ill-health or substance use, and limited access to services. These experiences often accumulate rather than occur in isolation. Where adversity coincides with care experience, placement instability or school exclusion, its impact on emotional development and wellbeing is amplified.

The care system

When considering ACEs, it is important to consider the care system as by definition, children in the care system will have been exposed to ACEs. Cumberland has higher rates of children in need, on a protection plan and children cared for (94.4 vs 71.3 per 10,000) compared to the national average and statistical neighbours. Over half (51.5%) of children cared for are placed outside the Cumberland boundary, but are less likely to be moved through multiple placements. However, Cumberland has shorter adoption waiting times, and higher rates on onwards employment and care experienced adults in higher education that the England average (source: Cumberland HDRC).

National data from 2011-2015 shows that across England, boys were less likely to be placed into foster care than girls, and more like to be placed into children’s homes, secure children’s home or young offender institutes (Figure 21).

Identity formation is a central developmental task of adolescence and early adulthood. Through family relationships, school experiences, peer interactions and community context, boys learn who they are, what is expected of them and how they are valued. Identity is not a fixed personal characteristic, but a socially shaped process that reflects opportunity, context and lived experience.

Erikson’s psychosocial model conceptualises identity development as a lifelong process, structured around a series of developmental stages, each involving a central psychosocial challenge. Figure 22 presents Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, the associated core challenges and the psychological strengths, or “virtues”, that emerge when these challenges are successfully navigated.

Figure 22: Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development, image taken from psychology today

Early childhood and school-age experiences are key periods in shaping sense of competence and self-worth. Repeated experiences of difficulty, sanction or low expectation can undermine the development of competence and purpose. Boys in Cumberland are disproportionately exposed to cumulative stressors, including poverty, bereavement, substance use and involvement with the care system. Where such experiences coincide with limited opportunities to express vulnerability or access trusted adult support, identity may become organised around emotional self-reliance, withdrawal or risk-taking. These patterns reflect adaptation to context and are reinforced by social expectations around masculinity.

As boys move into adolescence and early adulthood, these identity pathways influence how they relate to work, relationships and support. For those whose early experiences have disrupted the development of competence, belonging or role identity, transitions into employment or training may be particularly challenging, especially in areas with limited local labour market opportunities. This helps explain why early disadvantage in Cumberland is closely linked to later patterns of insecure work, social isolation and poor mental health among men. Where a sense of future role, belonging or purpose is weakened, feelings of hopelessness may emerge, a factor consistently associated with suicide risk. Consistent relationships, access to meaningful work or training, community connection and responsive services can support the re-development of identity, even where early experiences have been adverse.

Between April 2023 and September 2025 there were a total of 626 children referred to the youth justice service, 512 (81.8%) of whom were boys. The first six months of 2025 to 2026 have seen a lower number of referrals into the service. Though the reasons for this drop cannot be specifically attributed to a cause, the Pol-Ed resource was introduced on June 2nd 2025. This is a police resource for use in schools designed to help teachers deliver lesson around relationships and consent, the law, keeping safe and wellbeing.

Local Youth Justice Service referral patterns show that most contact occurs before statutory court involvement. Over a third of referrals (35.8%) relate to prevention activity, with a further 13.5% involving early assessment to understand risk or suitability for diversion. Around one third of referrals (32.5%) are managed through out-of-court resolutions, indicating a strong emphasis on diversion where offending does occur. Statutory youth justice supervision accounts for fewer than one in five referrals (18.3%), representing a smaller but higher-need group. This distribution highlights the importance of effective early intervention to prevent escalation into formal justice pathways.

Of 101 children involved with Cumberland Youth Justice Service in December 2025, 27 (26.7%) were receiving support for drug use, three (3.0%) for alcohol and ten (9.9%) support for both drugs and alcohol. During March 2025 to September 2025 the most common criminal charges associated with children referred for intervention were ‘theft/robbery/burglary’, ‘assault/ABH/ violence’ and ‘threatening/harassment/stalking’.

Online influences

In recent years, there has been growing concern about the influence of online content that promotes rigid or harmful models of masculinity, often referred to as the “manosphere”. High-profile online figures have been associated with messages that emphasise dominance, emotional suppression, entitlement and misogyny, raising concerns about their potential impact on boys’ attitudes, relationships and behaviour.

Around half of professionals working with boys and young men surveyed at the end of 2025 identified exposure to harmful online influencers as a driver of need. Trauma, emotional suppression, school disengagement, low aspiration and poor mental health were more frequently cited. When asked specifically about the impacts of online influencers, 8 out of 53 professionals answered ‘a lot’ or ‘very significantly’.

This suggests that while digital environments warrant ongoing attention, focus should lie on preventing the underlying factors that leave young children open to influence from online sources that result in susceptibility, such as early abandonment, family dysfunction and psychological vulnerabilities (Campelo et al., 2018).

Place of birth: the coastal disadvantage

The social and economic conditions children grow up in have a lasting influence on their mental health, educational engagement and life chances. Young adults in coastal communities have disproportionality poor mental health. National longitudinal research following adolescents in England found that young adults living in the most deprived coastal areas experienced around three times the risk of undiagnosed mental distress compared with young adults in inland areas with similar levels of deprivation. The key driver of this difference was household socioeconomic circumstances (Murray et al., 2025).

The authors of this research emphasise that reducing mental health inequalities in coastal communities requires both improved access to timely support and sustained action on underlying socioeconomic drivers. Recommended national actions include reducing waiting times for mental health treatment in deprived coastal areas, increasing investment in preventative programmes for young people, and prioritising the development of Young Futures Hubs in communities with the highest burden of need. At a local level, the research highlights the importance of setting clear improvement targets for young people’s mental health and committing to long-term investment in education, employment, housing and transport, recognising that mental health outcomes are shaped as much by opportunity and infrastructure as by clinical provision.

In Cumberland, many children grow up in coastal, post-industrial communities where deprivation, limited access to services and economic insecurity are more prevalent. These conditions shape health from the very earliest stages of life. Indicators such as infant mortality, early childhood emergency department attendances, and developmental outcomes consistently show social gradients.

Professional insights regarding the needs of boys and young men in Cumberland

Predominate themes around the needs of boys and young men in Cumberland gathered from surveyed professionals can be seen in Figure 23. Within the free text ‘other’ options, unmet neurodiversity needs were highlighted three times. One professional highlighted feelings of inadequacy amongst boys who ‘are not enough’ for major local employers, with one further professional citing financial concerns as an issue, particularly for the oldest child. These, together with high levels of reported needs around low aspiration and future insecure employment concerns highlights an early awareness of opportunities, and lack of, impacting the wellbeing of young men.

The majority of respondents reported that boys and young men often or almost always hold back from seeking help when they need it. Stigma around emotions, fear of looking weak and distrust of services were the three leading reported reasons for boys and young men not engaging with support when needed. The vast majority (93%) of respondents reported that local cultural norms around stoicism had a medium to very high impact. Box 2 presents an example of local work being completed to support the development of health masculinities by The Little Blackbird, founded by Adrian and Claire Dakers.

Where support is effective, professional insight points strongly towards relational and practical approaches. Boys and young men were reported to respond best to activitiesbased engagement, one-to-one relational support, and trusted adults or positive male role models. Digital-only provision and crisis-led responses were identified as less effective.

These findings reinforce the importance of preventative, community-embedded approaches that build relationships before crisis point, rather than relying on self-referral into clinical or online pathways.

Box 2: The Little Blackbird

Founded by Ade & Claire Dakers, Little Blackbird are a well-being focused organisation that offers impactful Training, Workshops and Social Value projects, across Education, Business & Community settings. Specialising in masculinity and well-being, their mission is to positively challenge cultures and beliefs by delivering programmes that improve communication, strengthen emotional intelligence and explore the power of vulnerability.

Little Blackbird created one of their core projects, “The Man I Want To Become” in 2022 following the tragic loss of a friend to suicide. Built on lived experience, it is an early-intervention, film-led initiative that supports young people to explore healthy masculinity, improve communication, strengthen emotional resilience and understand accountability. It can be delivered in schools, grassroots sport, community projects and adapted for adult groups within the same settings. Little Blackbird strives to challenge cultures and stereotypes related to old age perceptions of masculinity which are no longer fit for purpose, instead creating new ideas around what it means to be a boy/ man, and promoting a better understanding of what positive expressions of masculinity look like.

In November 2025, Little Blackbird delivered “The Man I Want To Become” project with the U16 team at Workington Zebras RFC, in collaboration with Morgan Sindall Construction as a Social Value Partner. The project was a resounding success, with exceptional feedback;

Quotes from some of lads who participated in the project;

“I’ve learnt that it’s okay to show your emotions and to know how to be brave. To really check on each other and to share how you feel, and to look at being a man not as being powerful, but being brave to share what you feel”

“Lads talking is something we need to be encouraging in this area. Times are changing and us in Cumbria are stuck in the past where men weren’t allowed to talk about their feelings”

Parents feedback;

“It’s made my lads understand that it’s ok to not be ok and we all need to vent about things that are getting us down and to understand that there’s always an answer”

Ade’s vision to create a safe space for men to have real conversations saw the introduction of the Little Blackbird podcast, “Tackling it Together” in 2024. A true labour of love, Tackling it Together has already had immeasurable impact and is now a core part of Little Blackbird’s Social Value offering. With a wide range of themes covered, Ade promotes honest and vulnerable connections and powerful conversations, demonstrating that two fellas can sit down and have an open and authentic chat without a pint.

Contact: [email protected]

Summary

This chapter has demonstrated that many of the inequalities observed in men’s health in Cumberland begin early in life. Differences in development, emotional wellbeing, educational engagement and system contact emerge in childhood and adolescence, particularly among boys growing up in deprived and coastal communities and those experiencing cumulative adversity.

For boys, adversity is more likely to be expressed through behavioural change, disengagement or externalising distress. When these responses are met primarily through disciplinary or fragmented systems rather than early, coordinated support, disadvantage is more likely to escalate than resolve. Over time, this reduces protective factors, narrows opportunities and increases exposure to further risk.

These experiences shape how men relate to employment, identity and support in later life, and set the scene for poor mental health, substance use and premature mortality observed among men in Cumberland.

The following chapter examines how these early disadvantages interact with work, place and identity in adulthood, and how economic structure and labour market conditions can either compound or mitigate the risks established earlier in the life course.