Child victimisation

In the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW), “victimisation” refers to a child reporting that they have experienced one or more crimes in the previous year. For children aged 10 to 15, this includes violence against the person (with or without injury), theft, criminal damage and other personal crimes, whether or not these were reported to the police. It captures children’s direct experiences of crime and harm, rather than exposure to domestic abuse between adults.

National Crime Survey data show that boys aged 10–15 are more likely than girls to have experienced victimisation in the year prior to the survey (14.5% compared with 9.1%). Disabled children are also at increased risk (14.1% compared with 11.7% among non-disabled children). Rates peak at key transitional points in schooling, including the end of primary school (Year 6) and at the end of secondary school (Year 11), suggesting heightened vulnerability during periods of social and developmental transition.

These findings are important in the context of this report. While women are disproportionately affected by domestic and sexual violence in adulthood, boys are more likely to experience general victimisation during childhood. This reflects different exposure patterns across the life course and reinforces the need for age- and gender-responsive prevention strategies.

Childhood adversity and intergenerational harm

Parenting capacity as defined by Conley is “the ability to parent in a ‘good enough’ manner long term” (Conley, 2003). Parental capacity is shaped not only by parenting skills, but by parents’ physical and mental health, economic security and ability to engage consistently with children. Men’s health and wellbeing therefore play a critical role in shaping father–child relationships and wider family functioning.

Children’s development and life chances are shaped by both individual parenting behaviours, and the wider conditions within which families operate (source: UCL Institute of Health Equity). Men’s physical and mental health, economic stability and ability to engage consistently in family life play a critical role in shaping these conditions. Where men experience poor health, insecure employment, substance misuse or involvement with the justice system, the effects often extend beyond the individual, altering household environments in ways that increase risk for children.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) provide a framework for understanding these pathways. Exposure to domestic abuse, parental mental ill-health, substance misuse, family conflict or parental absence are all recognised ACEs and are associated with increased risk of poor mental health, substance misuse, bullying and school belonging, involvement with the justice system and an increased risk of multi-morbidity, continuing to increase with higher numbers of ACEs experienced (Gu et al., 2022; Hughes et al., 2025; Senaratne et al., 2024). Figure 30 shows the occurrence of ACEs in children placed into secure estates for welfare reason. By definition, there is an extremely high prevalence of ACEs, including neglect, abuse, parental loss, parent mental illness and bereavement.

Exposure to domestic abuse, parental mental ill-health, substance misuse, family conflict or parental absence are all recognised ACEs. As outlined in Chapter 2, Cumberland has higher-than-average levels of several adult risk factors associated with ACEs, including substance misuse, suicide and justice contact, indicating increased population-level vulnerability for children.

Children learn how to understand and respond to stress by observing adult behaviour. Where coping is characterised by emotional suppression, anger, withdrawal or substance use, these responses may be normalised and reproduced across generations. Evidence demonstrates significant links between high levels of father involvement and more adaptive emotional regulation(Puglisi et al., 2024). Research from Public Health Wales and Bangor University, studying Welsh male prisoners, found that paternal ACE exposure increased risk of children experiencing multiple ACEs and recommended the need for interventions to break intergenerational continuity of ACEs, supporting both incarcerated individuals and their families (Ford et al., 2024).

Improving men’s health and wellbeing has important knock-on impacts to child health and wellbeing. Addressing upstream drivers of male distress has the potential to improve family environments, reduce childhood adversity and interrupt intergenerational cycles of harm. This reinforces the need for early, gender-aware and family-focused approaches that support men as parents and caregivers.

Community safety and emerging crime in Cumbria

Crime and community safety are a key part of “family and relationship wellbeing” because they shape fear, trauma exposure, neighbourhood cohesion and the lived experience of place. They also represent an important wider impact of the upstream drivers described throughout this report, including alcohol and drug harm, distress, exclusion and disrupted identity pathways.

Cumberland has consistently higher rates of overall crime compared with the North West region (source: Cumbria Observatory) Figure 31. However, this is not consistent for all crime types (Figure 32). Cumberland has lower levels of antisocial behaviour, vehicle crime and robbery rates that the region, and equal rates of burglaries, theft and theft from the person. Where Cumberland has higher rates of crime is most markedly violence and sexual offences (Figure 33) (the most common crime committed in Cumberland), public order offences, possession of weapons, and criminal damage and arson, followed by shoplifting, bicycle theft and drug offences.

Violence against the person accounts for almost 17,000 recorded offences across Cumbria (2022 to 2023), with rates highest in Carlisle and Furness. These two localities account for over half of hospital admissions due to violence in the county.

Alcohol is a significant driver of harm. Alcohol-related crime accounts for one in seven offences in Cumberland (14.7%). Patterns of heavy drinking, particularly when combined with economic strain and social norms around masculinity, increase risk of both self-harm and violence.

While rates for drug related offences (trafficking and possession) are lower than the regional and national average, they are increasing. Drug-related deaths in Cumbria are approximately double the national average.

Economic pressures are also reflected in crime trends. Shoplifting and residential burglary have increased in line with inflation, with rates in Carlisle exceeding regional and national levels. Fraud has risen by 11.5% since 2020 to 2021.

The multi-agency, proactive and collaborative approach by Local Focus Hubs across Cumbria has also contributed to a reduction in antisocial behaviour in recent years. Although antisocial behaviour has reduced locally (-28.2% across Cumbria), it remains one of the top concerns for residents, alongside fear of burglary. Perception of safety influences community cohesion and wellbeing, shaping how people live and engage within neighbourhoods.

Geographical concentration of crime and harm

Crime within Cumberland is not evenly distributed (Figure 37). Analysis from the Crime and Community Safety Strategic Assessment shows clear geographical clustering of harm, closely aligned with deprivation.

In 2023, across Cumberland, 36 Lower Super Output Areas (LSOAs) fell within the 20% most deprived nationally. Crime rates are highest within the Carlisle locality area. Within Cumberland, the wards identified as least safe, including Castle, Currock, Moss Bay and Moorclose, and Kells and Sandwith, together contain one third of all of Cumberland’s most deprived LSOAs.

The community panel areas with the highest crime rates, Petteril, Carlisle West and Workington Together, account for nearly three fifths (58%) of all Cumberland’s most deprived neighbourhoods.

This pattern reinforces the well-established relationship between deprivation and crime. Exposure to violence, antisocial behaviour and domestic abuse is spatially concentrated, meaning that some communities experience cumulative disadvantage: economic strain, poorer health outcomes, and higher exposure to crime.

For a report focused on men’s health, this matters. Many of the same areas facing higher crime rates also experience higher unemployment, substance misuse, poorer mental health and justice involvement. Improving men’s wellbeing in these communities is therefore both an individual health intervention and a place-based strategy to reduce violence and narrow inequalities.

Crime in Cumberland is not solely a justice issue; it is a population health issue. Patterns of violent crime, domestic abuse, alcohol-related offending and sexual offences are closely intertwined with the upstream drivers explored throughout this report: economic insecurity, mental ill-health, substance misuse, trauma and social isolation. Where male distress manifests in harmful coping, aggression or disengagement, the impacts extend beyond the individual to partners, children and neighbourhoods.

The burden of crime is experienced directly by victims through injury, fear and trauma, and indirectly through its effects on communities. High-crime environments shape perceptions of safety, restrict the use of public space, increase pressure on policing and emergency care, and generate sustained demand across mental health, substance misuse, housing and safeguarding services. Concentrated crime in areas of deprivation compounds existing inequalities, reinforcing cycles of disadvantage.

Addressing men’s mental health, substance misuse and economic exclusion is therefore relevant not only to men’s individual outcomes, but to community safety and family wellbeing. Strengthening early support, improving access to help before crisis, and challenging harmful norms that contribute to violence are central components of prevention.

Chapter summary

The evidence in this chapter reinforces a clear message: men’s health is inseparable from the wellbeing of women, children and communities. Women are disproportionately affected by domestic and sexual violence. Children experience harm both directly, through victimisation, and indirectly, through exposure to instability, conflict and trauma. Crime patterns further shape the lived experience of place, particularly in deprived neighbourhoods.

Improving men’s health, particularly mental wellbeing, substance use support, economic inclusion and access to early intervention, must therefore be aligned with safeguarding, tackling violence against women and girls (VAWG), and community safety priorities. Strengthening upstream prevention in men is key to fewer individuals and families experiencing harm downstream.